Associate of Applied Science - Administration of Justice
The Administration of Justice degree program is an interdisciplinary program of study which prepares students for a broad range of employment opportunities including law enforcement, corrections, probation/parole officer, and social services in the courts or community agencies.
In addition to preparing students for entry-level employment, this degree program is appropriate for individuals already employed in the justice field who are seeking skill upgrade and promotional opportunities, and individuals preparing to transfer to a four-year college/university with a major in Justice Studies.
Arizona State University, Arizona State University-West, Grand Canyon University, Northern Arizona University and the University of Arizona all offer baccalaureate degree programs in Justice Studies/Administration of Justice.
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Course |
Course Title |
Hours |
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AJS101 |
Intro Admin of JusticeCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 101. Introduction to Administration of Justice (3). Overview of the criminal justice system. Organization and jurisdiction of local, state, and federal law enforcement, judicial, and correctional systems. History and philosophy of each component of the criminal justice system and interrelations among the various agencies. Career opportunities and qualifying requirements. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. The social, political and legal issues defining crime
2. Statistical instruments used to measure crime
3. Law enforcement
a. History and philosophy
b. Organization and jurisdiction
c. Legal issues and due process
d. Recruitment, selection, and career opportunities
4. Judicial system
a. History and philosophy
b. Organization and jurisdiction
c. Due process of law
d. Pretrial and trial procedures
e. Professions related to the judicial system
5. Correctional system
a.History and philosophy
b. Organization and structure
c. Due process
d. Sentencing guidelines
e. Career opportunities
6. Overview of Juvenile Justice System
7. Future of criminal justice
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Define crime in the context of social, political, and legal issues.
2. Identify the statistical instruments used to measure crime.
3. Identify and describe the organization and jurisdiction of the three components of the criminal justice system: Law enforcement, courts, and corrections.
4. Explain the history and philosophy of the three components of the criminal justice system.
5. Define due process of law in relation to each of the three components of the criminal justice system.
6. Identify and describe the organization and jurisdiction of the juvenile justice system.
7. Discuss future directions in the criminal justice system.
8. List career opportunities and qualifying requirements within the three components of the criminal justice system.
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3 |
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AJS109 |
Substantive Criminal LawCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 109. Substantive Criminal Law (3). Philosophy of legal sanctions and the historical development from common law to modern American criminal law. Classifications and general definitions of crimes. Common defenses to crimes. Prerequisite: AJS 101. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Origins and philosophy of criminal law
2. Judicial powers and jurisdiction
3. The elements of a crime
4. Crime classifications
a. crimes against person
b. crimes against property
c. crimes against habitation
d. crimes against public order
e. crimes against health, safety, and morality
5. Defenses to criminal liability
a. alibi
b. justification
c. excuse
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Trace the historical development of American criminal law from English common law to the modern American legal system.
2. Explain how laws are made or changed, judicial powers of review and interpretation, and the jurisdiction of particular courts.
3. List and explain the elements of a crime.
4. Identify general classifications of crimes and specific criminal acts within those classifications.
5. Identify general defenses to criminal liability and specific examples of defenses.
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3 |
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AJS200 |
Curr Issue/Criminal JustCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 200. Current Issues in Criminal Justice (3). Current issues, trends, and techniques related to and affecting the criminal justice system Prerequisite: AJS 101. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Crime in the United States
a. criminal behavior
b. murder rates
c. race issues
d. drugs and crime
e. the criminal justice process
2. Victimology
a. victim rights
b. childhood victimization
c. battered women
3. Police
a. community policing
b. multiculturalism
c. use of deadly force and pursuits
d. ethics
4. Judicial System
a. jury system
b. expert witnesses
c. insanity defense
5. Juvenile Justice
a. transfers to adult court
b. kids and guns
c. teen courts
6. Punishment and Corrections
a. trends in probation
b. race issues
c. women in prison
d. prison overcrowding
e. death penalty
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Explain how current social issues, trends in criminal behavior, and the criminal justice process itself effects crime rates
2. Discuss current issues effecting victims of crime
3. Identify and explain current social issues affecting police work.
4. Discuss current policy issues related to police work.
5. Discuss specific issues related to the contemporary judicial system.
6. Assess recent trends in juvenile crime and resulting current philosophies and practices in juvenile justice.
7. Evaluate trends and policies in corrections based on current literary courses.
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3 |
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AJS212 |
Juvenile Justice ProcedureCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 212. Juvenile Justice Procedures (3). History and development of juvenile justice theories, procedures and institutions. Prerequisite: AJS 101. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. History of the juvenile justice system
2. Overview of the modern-day juvenile justice system.
3. Juvenile delinquency and the law
4. Police interaction with juveniles
5. Juvenile justice procedures
6. Current issues and problems with the juvenile justice system
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Outline the historical development of the juvenile justice system.
2. Outline the modern philosophies, organization and treatment/intervention goals of the juvenile justice system.
3. Name and explain landmark cases related to current juvenile justice laws.
4. Describe law enforcement procedures related to juvenile delinquency.
5. Outline juvenile justice procedures from arrest/intake through disposition.
6. Identify and discuss current issues and problems associated with the juvenile justice system.
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3 |
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AJS225 |
CriminologyCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 225. Criminology (3). Theories of criminality and the economic, social and psychological impact of crime, victimization, and the relationships between statistics and crime trends. The study of deviance and society's role in defining behavior. Prerequisite: AJS 101. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Theories of criminal behavior
2. Crime statistics and trends
3. Categories of crime
4. The impact of crime on society
5. Social structure and criminality
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Identify and summarize the various theories of criminal behavior.
2. Analyze the relationship between crime statistics and trends.
3. Categorize types of crimes.
4. Describe the economic and psychological impact of crime on society.
5. Explain the relationship between social status and criminality.
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3 |
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AJS230 |
The Police FunctionCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 230. The Police Function (3). History and development, procedures and methods of operations of law enforcement agencies. Role of the individual law enforcement officer. Career opportunities and the hiring process. Prerequisite: AJS 101. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Historical overview and development of law enforcement agencies
2. Structure and jurisdiction of modern law enforcement agencies
3. Roles, functions, and operations of law enforcement in modern society
4. Law enforcement organization and management
5. Discretionary powers of the law enforcement officer
6. Professionalism and ethical issues related to law enforcement
7. Job-related problems of the individual officer
8. Hiring process and training
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Trace the history and development of early law enforcement agencies.
2. Classify modern law enforcement agencies according to structure and jurisdiction.
3. Explain the role of law enforcement in terms of patrol, investigation, traffic enforcement, and crime prevention.
4. Identify the typical chain of command in law enforcement agencies.
5. Discuss theories of management related to law enforcement administration.
6. Define discretion as related to law enforcement and describe the internal and external mechanisms which influence and control discretion.
7. Explain law enforcement as a profession.
8. Identify policies related to ethical concerns.
9. Describe work-related stress, the effect on home-life, liability issues, and the dangers of law enforcement.
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3 |
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AJS240 |
The Correction FunctionCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 240. The Correction Function (3). History and development of correctional theories, practices, and institutions. Modern ideologies and functions associated with both community-based and custodial corrections systems. Prerequisite: AJS 101. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Overview of the criminal justice process
2. Evolution of corrections
3. Supreme Court decisions related to the corrections system
4. Goals and philosophies related to the treatment of offenders
5. Alternatives to incarceration
6. Correctional institutions
7. Parole
8. Capital punishment
9. Special problems related to the correctional system
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Identify the three components of the criminal justice system and explain the role corrections plays within the system.
2. Summarize the historical development of the correction function within the criminal justice system.
3. Analyze the effect of Supreme Court decisions on the correctional system.
4. Name the generally accepted goals of corrections and explain the philosophies which led to the development of these goals.
5. Trace the historical development of probation, describe the function of probation, and identify alternatives to incarceration.
6. Identify and describe the organization of various types of correctional institutions and explain the management of each.
7. Outline the differences between parole and probation and describe the appropriate circumstances under which each is used.
8. Discuss issues related to capital punishment: history, laws, philosophies, and public opinion.
9. Identify and discuss problems and issues related to the modern correctional system.
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3 |
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AJS260 |
Procedural Criminal LawCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 260. Procedural Criminal Law (3). Procedural criminal law. Emphasis on rationale underlying major court holdings, the resulting procedural requirements, and the effect on the daily operations of the criminal justice system. Prerequisite: AJS 101. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Historical overview of the United States judicial system
a. Constitution
b. Supreme Court
c. Constitutional amendments
2. Police procedures
a. arrest
b. interrogation
c. search and seizure
3. Trial procedures
a. pretrial process
b. trial process
c. sentencing process
4. Corrections
a. prison
b. parole
5. Juvenile Justice System
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Summarize the development and the role of the United States Constitution and the United States Supreme Court in determining procedural requirements for the criminal justice system.
2. Describe the concepts of judicial review and judicial interpretation.
3. Define the first, fourth, fifth, sixth, eighth, and fourteenth amendments to the constitution and explain their significance to procedural criminal law.
4. Analyze major cases and procedural requirements related to arrest, interrogation, and search and seizure by law enforcement.
5. Outline the steps in the pretrial, trial, and sentencing processes.
6. Analyze major cases and procedural requirements related to the pretrial, trial, and sentencing processes.
7. Analyze and define major cases and procedural requirements related to corrections procedures including probation, parole, and prison.
8. Identify and define major cases and procedural requirements related to the juvenile justice system.
9. Explain appellate jurisdiction and outline the appeal process.
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3 |
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AJS270 |
Community RelationsCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 270. Community Relations (3). Recognition and understanding of community problems; community action programs; methods of coping with crisis situations, victimology, ethnic and minority cultures, environments, crime prevention and police operations. Prerequisite: AJS 101. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Overview
2. Historical perspectives
3. The justice community
4. Contrast between public and community relations
5. Psychological factors affecting police-community relations
6. Police role concept in a changing society
7. Coping with the human experience of being a cop
8. Police professionalism and PCR
9. The communication process
10. Blocks to effective communication
11. Selective enforcement and community relations
12. The media link
13. The young, the elderly and the police
14. Community relations in the context of culture
15. Dilemmas of dissent and political response
16. Conflict management
17. Community control: a continuum of participation
18. Innovations and programs for the future
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Understand police-community relations in principle and practice.
2. Identify and analyze specific problems which relate to police-community relations and seek possible solutions.
3. Question and explore community relations from differing perspectives.
4. Recognize diverse social and personal needs of individuals and groups in modern society.
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3 |
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AJS275 |
Criminal InvestigationsCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 275. Criminal Investigations (3). Theories of criminal investigation. Includes basic investigative techniques of crime scene procedures, case preparation, and interview techniques. Prerequisite: AJS 101. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Definition and goals of investigation
2. Role of the investigator
3. Crime scene management
4. Physical evidence procedures
5. Interview techniques
6. Investigations of specific crimes
7. Investigative report writing
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Define investigation and describe the goals of criminal investigation.
2. Explain the role of the investigator and describe the attributes of a successful investigator.
3. Define a crime scene and explain protecting and recording the crime scene.
4. Identify, collect, preserve, and transport physical evidence.
5. Describe the steps involved in preparing for interviews, use interview techniques, and list common interview problems.
6. List and describe the basic investigative steps involved in specific crimes.
7. Prepare and write an investigative report.
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3 |
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AJS150 |
AZ Detention Off. Basic TrainCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 150. Arizona Detention Officers Basic Training Academy (13). Training in basic responsibilities required to be an Arizona Detention Officer. Development of professional abilities, and skills required for state certification. Prerequisite: Agency sponsorship required. Thirteen lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Basic law enforcement skills
2. Law and legal issues
3. Basic detention skills
4. Risk management
5. Defensive tactics
6. Physical training
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Preserve and protect a crime scene. (1)
2. Identify inmates who are using drugs. (3)
3. Communicate legal facts orally and in writing. (2)
4. Give testimony in court. (2)
5. Apply approved strategies for handling inmates with communicable diseases. (3)
6. Identify security risks in jail facility. (4)
7. Document pertinent evidentiary information as it is gathered. (2,4)
8. Apply CPR and administer First Aid. (1)
9. Employ officer survival techniques. (5)
10. Intervene in violent physical and nonviolent altercations. (3)
11. Develop a personal plan for maintaining physical conditioning appropriate to employment standards. (6)
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13 |
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AJS280 |
Law Enforcement Instr CertCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 280. Law Enforcement Instructor Certification (3). Learning theories, course development and evaluation methods. Effective use of instructional media and creating a learning environment. Successful students may be certified as Arizona Peace Officers Standards and Training Board Instructors. Prerequisite: Students must be appointed by a law enforcement agency. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Adult learning theories
2. Training liability
3. Performance objectives
4. Dynamic presentations
5. Lesson plans
6. Resources and media
7. Authentic assessment
8. Course development
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Use motivational strategies for adult learners.
2. Apply adult learning theories.
3. Describe training liability.
4. Apply course development methods.
5. Identify and describe training goals and objectives.
6. Use evaluation and assessment measures.
7. Use instructional media and create an interactive learning environment.
8. Research, plan and develop course materials.
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3 |
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AJS296 |
Internship: Adm. of JusticeCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
AJS 296. Internship: Administration of Justice (3). Supervised field experience with businesses, corporations, government agencies, schools and community organizations to expand career interests and apply subject knowledge relevant to the workplace. Individualized internship placements to develop personal and professional skills, including professional ethics, leadership, and civic responsibility. Prerequisite: Student must a GPA of 2.0; have completed specific degree requirements as required by the program; and have completed the internship application process. [Repeatable for a total of 6 credit hours towards degree/certificate requirements.] S/U grading only.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Organizational overview of assigned placement
2. Integration of job description and organization's requirements
3. Elements of documentation of experience
4. Planning and time management
5. Professional, legal, and ethical issues
6. Communication, critical thinking, and problem solving
7. Specialized equipment, tools, and software required in the placement
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Exhibit appropriate workplace behaviors and professional ethics.
2. Apply discipline specific knowledge and skills in the professional workplace.
3. Define and utilize technical terms in written and oral communications.
4. Use critical thinking, problem solving, ethical awareness, and effective writing
5. Interpret written and oral instructions.
6. Initiate and complete assigned responsibilities.
7. Maintain documentation required to comply with government employer or nonprofit agency regulations.
8. Use specialized equipment, software, and tools as required.
9. Analyze and interpret data for specified reports.
10. Identify opportunities for improvement in process and documentation related to the workplace.
11. Articulate job description and position in assigned organization.
REQUIRED ASSESSMENT:
1. Record of Student Internship workplace hours.
2. Individual Education Plan (IEP) as approved by supervision faculty.
3. A daily journal, or work log of tasks, including dates, descriptive comments, problems and solutions.
4. A reflective paper or project as specified by the supervision faculty.
5. A minimum of two evaluations by the workplace employer or supervisor.
6. Student's self-evaluation of experience.
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3 |
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BSA120 |
Principles of SupervisionCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
BSA 120. Principles of Supervision (3). Supervisory principles and skill building. Includes decision making, problem solving, time management, leadership models, and communication process. Emphasis on selecting, motivating and evaluating employees. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Supervisory roles and challenges
2. Decision making and problem solving
3. Planning and time management
4. Motivation
5. Leadership
6. Communication
7. Selecting, training, and compensating employees
8. Appraising and disciplinary procedures
9. Resolving employee conflict
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Explain the basic skills required for effective supervision.
2. Define decision making and identify at least four elements involved.
3. Explain how planning differs at top, middle, and supervisory management levels.
4. Describe ways to effectively manage time.
5. Identify three levels of employee motivation and five steps to motivating employees.
6. Discuss and explain two frequently used leadership models.
7. Describe the components of the communication process model.
8. Describe the steps in the employee selection procedure, including the proper orientation of new employees.
9. List commonly provided employee benefits.
10. Explain what employee performance appraisal is and who is involved in the process.
11. Discuss the difference between positive and negative discipline.
12. Discuss conflict management styles and identify when each would be appropriate.
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3 |
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COM131 |
Fund Speech CommunicationCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
COM 131. Fundamentals of Speech Communication (3). Study of the essential elements of oral communication, with major emphasis on public speaking. Includes use of multimedia technologies for presentations. Prerequisite: Reading Proficiency. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Communication Discipline
2. Basic Rhetoric
3. Speech Structure
4. Content Development
5. Speech Preparation
6. Speech Anxiety
7. Delivery Techniques and Styles
8. Listening
9. Multicultural Communication
10. Speech Analysis
11. Communication Ethics
12. Audience Analysis.
13. Public Speaking in Group Environments
14. Individual Research Project
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Use listening skills and oral presentations as modes of discovery, reflection, understanding and sustained disciplined reasoning.(3-8)
2. Generate organized, logical communication appropriate to the needs of a specific communication environment (2,5,7)
3. Use precise writing, speaking and listening for a variety of audiences and purposes. (5,7,8,10,12)
4. Identify both the conscious and unconscious use of written, verbal and nonverbal communication. (10,12)
5. Identify and interpret discourse in specific communication environments.(9,11,12,13,14)
6. Express awareness of multiple meanings and perspectives of communication.(1, 2, 9,10)
7. Analyze audience and topic choice for various speaking situations(5,10,12)
8. Write full-sentence and speaking outlines. (4,5)
9. Identify and manage the causes of speech anxiety. (6)
10. Analyze speeches for use of stylistic and rhetorical devices, and implement the use of such devices in speeches. (2,3,10)
11. Implement strategies for delivery of messages to a variety of audiences, using a variety of visual aids (including multimedia technologies). (7,12,13,14)
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3 |
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CSA110 |
Intro Computer Info SystemCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
CSA 110. Introduction to Computer Information Systems (3). Computer hardware, software, and information-processing systems including analysis, development and implementation of computer systems. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Computer systems, the Internet, and the World Wide Web
2. Components of the system unit, including input, output, and storage
3. Operating systems and utility programs
4. Communications and networks
5. Database management
6. Computers and society, security, privacy, and ethics
7. Information system development
8. Enterprise computing
9. Computer careers and certification
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Define the basic components of a computer system.
2. Identify the basic components of the Internet and the World Wide Web.
3. Describe the functions of an operating system and utility programs.
4. Identify components necessary for communications and networking.
5. Describe the basic functions and uses of databases.
6. Evaluate the issues related to computer security risks, information privacy, and ethics.
7. Identify the phases and the activities in the system development cycle.
8. Identify the information system's needs for an enterprise.
9. Describe career opportunities and certification requirements in the computer industry.
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3 |
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FSC234 |
Fire InvestigationCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
FSC 234. Fire Investigation (3). Methods of determining point of fire origin and fire cause and detection of incendiary fires. Includes simplified physics and chemistry necessary to analyze fire behavior. Prerequisite: FSC 100 or FSC 105 or FSC 115. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. The fire problem
2. Sequence of a fire
3. Types of fuel
4. Combustion properties of solid fuels
5. Structure fires and investigation
6. Grass and wildland fires
7. Automobile and ship fires
8. Basic electricity
9. Clothing and fabric fires
10. Explosions and explosive combustion
11. Chemical fires and hazardous materials
12. General fire evidence
13. Fire related deaths
14. Arson as a crime
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Determine the nature of a fire.
2. Identify the main elements determining fire behavior.
3. Identify types of fuels and fuel properties.
4. Investigate and document particulars of structural and vehicular fires.
5. Determine cause of various types of fires and their origin.
6. Describe the pathology of a fire related human death.
7. Select laboratory services available to assist the fire investigator.
8. Analyze potential arson fires and conduct related investigation.
9. Document evidence and present testimony in court.
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3 |
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POS110 |
American National GovtCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
POS 110. American National Government (3).  POS 1110. Study of the United States Constitution and government. Emphasis on the 1760-1790 period in US history. Includes organization and function of the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. American history from 1607 through 1790
2. Key figures who were influential in setting up our federal system of government
3. Declaration of Independence, Articles of Confederation, US Constitution and Bill of Rights
4. Role, function and organization of the federal legislative, executive and judicial branches
5. Role of political parties, interest groups and the average citizen in American politics
6. The election process
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Trace the chronology of significant events that culminated in the independence of the American colonies from England and establishment of our present system of government.
2. Identify the key figures in the historical development of our government and explain the contributions each has made.
3. Explain the significant aspects of the Declaration of Independence and Articles of Confederation.
4. Analyze each Article of the US Constitution, the preamble and the Amendments to the Constitution, identifying and explaining the significant aspects of each and how they relate to government in America today.
5. Examine the role, function and organization of the federal legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
6. Explain the role of political parties, interest groups and the average citizen in American politics.
7. Identify the key stages of the federal election process and explain the nature of elections in American politics.
REQUIRED ASSESSMENT:
1. Demonstrate thoughtful and precise writing skills by completing at least 1500 words of monitored writing.
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3 |
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PSY241 |
Substance AbuseCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
PSY 241. Substance Abuse (3). Study of the physical, social, and psychological effects of substance abuse. The effects of substance abuse on the criminal justice system. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Nature and history of drug and alcohol abuse
2. Types of drugs
3. Psychological factors
4. Physiological factors
5. Social and criminal factors
6. Research in the field
7. Treatment methods
8. Anti-drug legislation
9. Legalization and decriminalization of drugs
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Explain the symptoms and consequences of substance abuse
2. Identify and categorize the types of drugs most associated with abuse.
3. Summarize the history of drug and alcohol abuse.
4. Characterize several treatment approaches to drug abuse.
5. Review current research in drug abuse.
6. Analyze the effects of drugs on the criminal justice system.
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3 |
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SOC125 |
Domestic ViolenceCOURSE DESCRIPTION:
SOC 125. Domestic Violence (3). Theory and dynamics in domestic violence. Defining spouse abuse, exploring origins and impact on children and family. Three lecture.
COURSE CONTENT:
1. Introduction
2. Defining abuse/inter-generational issues
3. Dynamics of abuse
4. Sexual stereotypes/role expectations
5. Codependency
6. Relationship of alcohol and drug abuse to abuse
7. Medical and moral aspects
8. Criminal justice system--its role and position on abuse
9. Role of legal advocacy for victims
10. Non-abusive communication skills
11. Incidence of elder abuse
12. Defining child abuse
13. Incest and its relationship to victimization
14. Community resources
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Name and define forms of spouse abuse, elder abuse and child abuse.
2. Label and analyze historical perspectives and sex role stereotyping pertaining to domestic violence.
3. Identify dynamics of the abuser and the abusive cycle.
4. Identify the appropriate role of community resources.
5. Apply basic principles and types of non-abusive communication skills.
6. Define the relationship of alcohol and other drugs to domestic violence.
7. Identify the inter-generational effect of domestic violence.
REQUIRED ASSESSMENT:
1. Employ thoughtful and precise writing (a minimum of 1500 words), critical reasoning, and analytical discourse through assigned writing tasks, essay examinations, journals, and/or research papers.
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